A Scientist Helps A Colleague

Chapter 1: Introduction to Biological science

1.2 The Process of Science

Past the end of this section, y'all will be able to:

• Place the shared characteristics of the natural sciences
• Empathise the process of scientific enquiry
• Compare anterior reasoning with deductive reasoning
• Describe the goals of basic science and engineering science

Watch a video near the Scientific Method.

Effigy 1.14 Formerly called blue-greenish algae, the (a) cyanobacteria seen through a light microscope are some of Earth's oldest life forms. These (b) stromatolites along the shores of Lake Thetis in Western Australia are aboriginal structures formed by the layering of cyanobacteria in shallow waters.

Like geology, physics, and chemical science, biology is a science that gathers cognition about the natural world. Specifically, biology is the written report of life. The discoveries of biology are made past a community of researchers who work individually and together using agreed-on methods. In this sense, biology, like all sciences is a social enterprise like politics or the arts. The methods of science include careful ascertainment, record keeping, logical and mathematical reasoning, experimentation, and submitting conclusions to the scrutiny of others. Scientific discipline also requires considerable imagination and inventiveness; a well-designed experiment is commonly described every bit elegant, or beautiful. Similar politics, scientific discipline has considerable practical implications and some science is dedicated to practical applications, such as the prevention of illness. Other science gain largely motivated by curiosity. Whatever its goal, in that location is no doubt that science, including biology, has transformed human being and will continue to do so.

Effigy i.15 Biologists may choose to report Escherichia coli (E. coli), a bacterium that is a normal resident of our digestive tracts but which is also sometimes responsible for disease outbreaks. In this micrograph, the bacterium is visualized using a scanning electron microscope and digital colorization.

The Nature of Science

Watch a video about the reductional approach of western science.

Biology is a scientific discipline, but what exactly is science? What does the study of biology share with other scientific disciplines? Science (from the Latin scientia, pregnant "knowledge") can be divers every bit knowledge about the natural world.

Science is a very specific style of learning, or knowing, about the globe. The history of the past 500 years demonstrates that science is a very powerful way of knowing about the world; it is largely responsible for the technological revolutions that accept taken place during this time. There are nonetheless, areas of noesis and man experience that the methods of science cannot be applied to. These include such things as answering purely moral questions, artful questions, or what can exist generally categorized as spiritual questions. Science has cannot investigate these areas because they are outside the realm of material phenomena, the phenomena of affair and energy, and cannot be observed and measured.

The scientific method is a method of research with defined steps that include experiments and conscientious observation. The steps of the scientific method will be examined in detail later on, only one of the nigh important aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for an issue, which can be tested. Hypotheses, or tentative explanations, are generally produced within the context of a scientific theory. A scientific theory is a generally accepted, thoroughly tested and confirmed caption for a set of observations or phenomena. Scientific theory is the foundation of scientific cognition. In addition, in many scientific disciplines (less then in biology) there are scientific laws, frequently expressed in mathematical formulas, which describe how elements of nature will deport nether certain specific atmospheric condition. In that location is non an development of hypotheses through theories to laws as if they represented some increase in certainty about the globe. Hypotheses are the solar day-to-twenty-four hours material that scientists work with and they are developed within the context of theories. Laws are concise descriptions of parts of the world that are amenable to formulaic or mathematical description.

Natural Sciences

What would you wait to see in a museum of natural sciences? Frogs? Plants? Dinosaur skeletons? Exhibits most how the brain functions? A planetarium? Gems and minerals? Or maybe all of the to a higher place? Science includes such various fields as astronomy, biology, calculator sciences, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics. However, those fields of scientific discipline related to the physical world and its phenomena and processes are considered natural sciences. Thus, a museum of natural sciences might comprise whatsoever of the items listed above.

 

Figure 1.xvi Some fields of science include astronomy, biology, calculator science, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics.

At that place is no complete agreement when it comes to defining what the natural sciences include. For some experts, the natural sciences are astronomy, biology, chemistry, earth science, and physics. Other scholars choose to separate natural sciences into life sciences, which written report living things and include biological science, and physical sciences, which study nonliving matter and include astronomy, physics, and chemistry. Some disciplines such as biophysics and biochemistry build on two sciences and are interdisciplinary.

Scientific Inquiry

One affair is mutual to all forms of scientific discipline: an ultimate goal "to know." Curiosity and inquiry are the driving forces for the development of science. Scientists seek to understand the world and the way it operates. Two methods of logical thinking are used: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. This type of reasoning is common in descriptive science. A life scientist such every bit a biologist makes observations and records them. These data can be qualitative (descriptive) or quantitative (consisting of numbers), and the raw data can be supplemented with drawings, pictures, photos, or videos. From many observations, the scientist can infer conclusions (inductions) based on evidence. Inductive reasoning involves formulating generalizations inferred from careful observation and the assay of a big amount of data. Brain studies often work this way. Many brains are observed while people are doing a task. The part of the brain that lights up, indicating activity, is then demonstrated to be the office controlling the response to that task.

Deductive reasoning or deduction is the blazon of logic used in hypothesis-based science. In deductive reasoning, the pattern of thinking moves in the opposite management as compared to inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses a general principle or constabulary to forecast specific results. From those general principles, a scientist can extrapolate and predict the specific results that would be valid as long equally the general principles are valid. For instance, a prediction would be that if the climate is condign warmer in a region, the distribution of plants and animals should change. Comparisons have been fabricated betwixt distributions in the past and the present, and the many changes that take been found are consistent with a warming climate. Finding the alter in distribution is evidence that the climate change decision is a valid one.

Both types of logical thinking are related to the two main pathways of scientific study: descriptive science and hypothesis-based science. Descriptive (or discovery) science aims to observe, explore, and discover, while hypothesis-based science begins with a specific question or problem and a potential answer or solution that tin can be tested. The boundary betwixt these two forms of study is oftentimes blurred, because most scientific endeavors combine both approaches. Observations lead to questions, questions lead to forming a hypothesis as a possible answer to those questions, and so the hypothesis is tested. Thus, descriptive science and hypothesis-based scientific discipline are in continuous dialogue.

Hypothesis Testing

Biologists study the living world by posing questions about information technology and seeking science-based responses. This approach is common to other sciences equally well and is oftentimes referred to equally the scientific method. The scientific method was used even in ancient times, but it was first documented by England's Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626), who prepare upwards inductive methods for scientific inquiry. The scientific method is non exclusively used by biologists just can exist applied to about anything as a logical trouble-solving method.

Figure1.17 Sir Francis Bacon is credited with being the offset to document the scientific method.

The scientific procedure typically starts with an ascertainment (often a trouble to exist solved) that leads to a question. Let'due south think nigh a simple problem that starts with an observation and use the scientific method to solve the trouble. One Monday morning, a student arrives at grade and quickly discovers that the classroom is as well warm. That is an ascertainment that also describes a problem: the classroom is also warm. The student and then asks a question: "Why is the classroom so warm?"

Call back that a hypothesis is a suggested explanation that can be tested. To solve a problem, several hypotheses may be proposed. For example, one hypothesis might be, "The classroom is warm because no i turned on the air conditioning." Just there could be other responses to the question, and therefore other hypotheses may be proposed. A second hypothesis might be, "The classroom is warm because there is a ability failure, and and so the air conditioning doesn't piece of work."

In one case a hypothesis has been selected, a prediction may be made. A prediction is similar to a hypothesis but information technology typically has the format "If . . . and so . . . ." For instance, the prediction for the starting time hypothesis might be, "If the student turns on the air workout, then the classroom volition no longer be too warm."

A hypothesis must be testable to ensure that it is valid. For example, a hypothesis that depends on what a bear thinks is not testable, because it can never be known what a bear thinks. It should too be falsifiable, meaning that it tin can be disproven by experimental results. An example of an unfalsifiable hypothesis is "Botticelli's Birth of Venus is beautiful." There is no experiment that might testify this statement to exist false. To test a hypothesis, a researcher volition conduct one or more experiments designed to eliminate one or more of the hypotheses. This is important. A hypothesis can exist disproven, or eliminated, but it can never be proven. Science does not deal in proofs like mathematics. If an experiment fails to disprove a hypothesis, then we find support for that explanation, but this is not to say that downwardly the route a better explanation volition not be institute, or a more than carefully designed experiment will be found to falsify the hypothesis.

Each experiment volition have i or more variables and one or more than controls. A variable is any part of the experiment that can vary or change during the experiment. A control is a role of the experiment that does not change. Expect for the variables and controls in the case that follows. Equally a simple example, an experiment might be conducted to test the hypothesis that phosphate limits the growth of algae in freshwater ponds. A series of artificial ponds are filled with water and half of them are treated past adding phosphate each week, while the other one-half are treated by calculation a salt that is known non to be used by algae. The variable here is the phosphate (or lack of phosphate), the experimental or treatment cases are the ponds with added phosphate and the control ponds are those with something inert added, such as the salt. Just adding something is also a command against the possibility that calculation extra matter to the swimming has an issue. If the treated ponds show lesser growth of algae, so we have constitute support for our hypothesis. If they do not, then we turn down our hypothesis. Be aware that rejecting one hypothesis does not determine whether or non the other hypotheses tin be accepted; it only eliminates ane hypothesis that is not valid . Using the scientific method, the hypotheses that are inconsistent with experimental information are rejected.

Figure ane.xviii The scientific method is a serial of defined steps that include experiments and careful ascertainment. If a hypothesis is not supported by data, a new hypothesis tin be proposed.

In the instance below, the scientific method is used to solve an everyday trouble. Which role in the example below is the hypothesis? Which is the prediction? Based on the results of the experiment, is the hypothesis supported? If it is not supported, propose some culling hypotheses.

1. My toaster doesn't toast my bread.
2. Why doesn't my toaster work?
3. There is something wrong with the electrical outlet.
4. If something is wrong with the outlet, my coffeemaker also won't work when plugged into it.
5. I plug my coffeemaker into the outlet.
6. My coffeemaker works.

In practice, the scientific method is non as rigid and structured every bit it might at beginning appear. Sometimes an experiment leads to conclusions that favour a modify in approach; often, an experiment brings entirely new scientific questions to the puzzle. Many times, scientific discipline does not operate in a linear fashion; instead, scientists continually draw inferences and make generalizations, finding patterns as their research proceeds. Scientific reasoning is more than complex than the scientific method lone suggests.

Watch a video about the progress of science.

Bones and Applied Science

The scientific community has been debating for the last few decades about the value of unlike types of science. Is it valuable to pursue science for the sake of only gaining cognition, or does scientific knowledge but have worth if we can utilise it to solving a specific problem or bettering our lives? This question focuses on the differences between two types of science: basic science and applied science.

Bones science or "pure" science seeks to expand knowledge regardless of the short-term awarding of that knowledge. It is non focused on developing a product or a service of firsthand public or commercial value. The immediate goal of bones science is knowledge for cognition's sake, though this does not hateful that in the end information technology may not result in an application.

In contrast, engineering or "technology," aims to use science to solve existent-world problems, making it possible, for instance, to improve a ingather yield, detect a cure for a particular affliction, or salvage animals threatened by a natural disaster. In technology, the problem is usually divers for the researcher.

Some individuals may perceive applied science every bit "useful" and basic science as "useless." A question these people might pose to a scientist advocating knowledge conquering would be, "What for?" A careful look at the history of science, notwithstanding, reveals that basic knowledge has resulted in many remarkable applications of great value. Many scientists think that a basic understanding of scientific discipline is necessary earlier an application is adult; therefore, applied science relies on the results generated through basic science. Other scientists think that it is fourth dimension to motility on from basic scientific discipline and instead to find solutions to actual problems. Both approaches are valid. It is true that there are problems that demand firsthand attention; withal, few solutions would be institute without the help of the knowledge generated through basic scientific discipline.

I case of how basic and technology tin piece of work together to solve applied bug occurred subsequently the discovery of Dna construction led to an understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing Dna replication. Strands of DNA, unique in every human, are found in our cells, where they provide the instructions necessary for life. During DNA replication, new copies of DNA are made, before long before a prison cell divides to class new cells. Understanding the mechanisms of DNA replication enabled scientists to develop laboratory techniques that are now used to identify genetic diseases, pinpoint individuals who were at a crime scene, and determine paternity. Without bones scientific discipline, it is unlikely that engineering science would be.

Some other example of the link between basic and applied research is the Homo Genome Project, a written report in which each man chromosome was analyzed and mapped to determine the precise sequence of Dna subunits and the verbal location of each factor. (The factor is the basic unit of heredity; an individual's complete collection of genes is his or her genome.) Other organisms take also been studied as part of this project to gain a better understanding of human chromosomes. The Homo Genome Projection  relied on basic research carried out with non-human organisms and, after, with the human genome. An important finish goal eventually became using the information for practical research seeking cures for genetically related diseases.

Figure 1.19 The Human Genome Project was a 13-yr collaborative try amidst researchers working in several unlike fields of science. The project was completed in 2003.

While research efforts in both bones science and engineering are usually carefully planned, it is important to annotation that some discoveries are made by serendipity, that is, past means of a fortunate accident or a lucky surprise. Penicillin was discovered when biologist Alexander Fleming accidentally left a petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria open. An unwanted mold grew, killing the bacteria. The mold turned out to be Penicillium, and a new antibiotic was discovered. Even in the highly organized world of science, luck—when combined with an observant, curious mind—tin lead to unexpected breakthroughs.

Reporting Scientific Work

Whether scientific research is bones scientific discipline or applied science, scientists must share their findings for other researchers to expand and build upon their discoveries. Advice and collaboration inside and between sub disciplines of science are key to the advancement of knowledge in science. For this reason, an important aspect of a scientist'southward work is disseminating results and communicating with peers. Scientists can share results past presenting them at a scientific meeting or briefing, merely this arroyo tin can reach just the limited few who are present. Instead, about scientists present their results in peer-reviewed manufactures that are published in scientific journals. Peer-reviewed articles are scientific papers that are reviewed, ordinarily anonymously by a scientist's colleagues, or peers. These colleagues are qualified individuals, ofttimes experts in the same research area, who approximate whether or not the scientist'due south work is suitable for publication. The process of peer review helps to ensure that the inquiry described in a scientific paper or grant proposal is original, significant, logical, and thorough. Grant proposals, which are requests for research funding, are too subject to peer review. Scientists publish their work and so other scientists tin can reproduce their experiments under similar or dissimilar conditions to aggrandize on the findings. The experimental results must be consequent with the findings of other scientists.

There are many journals and the pop press that practice not use a peer-review system. A big number of online open-access journals, journals with articles available without cost, are now available many of which use rigorous peer-review systems, but some of which do not. Results of any studies published in these forums without peer review are not reliable and should non form the basis for other scientific piece of work. In 1 exception, journals may permit a researcher to cite a personal advice from some other researcher about unpublished results with the cited writer's permission.

Department Summary

Biological science is the scientific discipline that studies living organisms and their interactions with i another and their environments. Science attempts to draw and empathize the nature of the universe in whole or in role. Scientific discipline has many fields; those fields related to the physical world and its phenomena are considered natural sciences.

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for an observation. A scientific theory is a well-tested and consistently verified explanation for a fix of observations or phenomena. A scientific law is a clarification, often in the course of a mathematical formula, of the behaviour of an attribute of nature under certain circumstances. Ii types of logical reasoning are used in scientific discipline. Anterior reasoning uses results to produce general scientific principles. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that predicts results by applying general principles. The mutual thread throughout scientific enquiry is the apply of the scientific method. Scientists present their results in peer-reviewed scientific papers published in scientific journals.

Science can be basic or applied. The main goal of bones science is to expand cognition without any expectation of short-term practical application of that knowledge. The main goal of applied inquiry, however, is to solve practical problems.

engineering: a form of science that solves existent-earth problems

basic science: science that seeks to expand knowledge regardless of the brusk-term application of that noesis

control: a part of an experiment that does non change during the experiment

deductive reasoning: a form of logical thinking that uses a general statement to forecast specific results

descriptive scientific discipline: a form of science that aims to find, explore, and discover things out

falsifiable: able to exist disproven by experimental results

hypothesis : a suggested explanation for an event, which tin be tested

hypothesis-based science: a class of scientific discipline that begins with a specific explanation that is then tested

anterior reasoning: a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion

life scientific discipline: a field of science, such every bit biology, that studies living things

natural scientific discipline: a field of science that studies the physical world, its phenomena, and processes

peer-reviewed article: a scientific report that is reviewed by a scientist's colleagues before publication

physical scientific discipline: a field of science, such as astronomy, physics, and chemistry, that studies nonliving matter

science: knowledge that covers general truths or the functioning of full general laws, especially when acquired and tested by the scientific method

scientific law: a description, often in the form of a mathematical formula, for the behavior of some attribute of nature under certain specific conditions

scientific method: a method of inquiry with divers steps that include experiments and careful observation

scientific theory: a thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for observations or phenomena

variable: a office of an experiment that can vary or alter

Media Attribution

• Figure ane.14
  • Cyanobacteria past NASA © Public Domain
  • Stromatolites at Lake Thetis by Ruth Ellison © CC By-NC (Attribution NonCommercial)
• Figure one.xv by Eric Erbe, digital colorization by Christopher Pooley, both of USDA, ARS, EMU. © Public Domain
• Effigy one.xvi by Prototype Editor © CC By (Attribution)
• Figure 1.17 by Paul van Somer I © Public Domain
• Figure 1.19 past U.South. Department of Energy, Man Genome Projection © Public Domain

A Scientist Helps A Colleague,

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